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Rapeseed cultivation guide

Recommended types:

Starter Fertilization

Top dressing

1. Introduction

  • Worldwide Production: More than 70 million tons per year.
  • Main Productive Countries:
    • Canada, China, India, Germany, France.
  • Greece:
    • Approximately 000-60,000 acres are cultivated mainly for biofuels and animal feed.
    • Production is expected to increase due to the European Union’s policies on the use of renewable energy sources.
  1. Transportation:
  • Edible oil low in erucic acid (canola oil).
  • Production of biofuels (biodiesel) with a low environmental footprint.
  1. Trace elements:
  • By-products (e.g. rapeseed pie) rich in protein for animal husbandry.
  1. Trace elements:
  • Production of lubricants, cosmetics and soaps.
  1. Trace elements:
  • Residues are used for biogas production and soil fertilization.
  • Minimum Vegetation Temperature: 3–5°C.
    • Frost
  • resistance: Up to -15°C in the rosette stages, which makes it ideal for winter cultivation.
  • Optimal Development Temperature: 15–25°C.
  • Sunshine: Rapeseed requires moderate to high sunshine for high photosynthetic capacity.
    • Soil
  • Moisture: Ideal for irrigated and dry conditions, but requires sufficient water during the flowering and seed filling phase.

Cold Resistance:

  • Suitable for winter crops, reducing competition with other spring crops.

High Oil Content (40–45%):

  • Strong demand for vegetable oils and biofuels.

  • Economic Performance:

  • Contract farming with guaranteed prices.

Renewable Energy:

  • Significant contribution to reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions.

Soil-Improving Crop:

  • Used in crop rotations to enhance soil structure.

2. Botanical Characteristics and Physiology

  • Deep pile root system, reaching a depth of up to 1.5-2 meters.
  • It helps in the uptake of water and nutrients from deeper soil layers.
  • Provides drought resistance and ensures stability in windy conditions.
  • Standing and branching, height 0.5-1.5 meters, depending on the variety and growing conditions.
  • It is lignified in the later stages of development, providing mechanical support for the flowers and lobes.
  • Lower leaves (rosette): Wide, lobed and covered with wax to reduce transpiration.
  • Upper sheets: Smaller, oblong and lanceolate, adapted for maximum light absorption.
  • Chlorophyll: High concentration for improved photosynthesis.
  • Typical yellow flowers arranged in inflorescences (botris).
  • The flowers are hermaphrodite and are mainly fertilized through insects (pollinators), while to a small extent self-fertilization takes place.
  • High dependence on bees for optimal pollination.
  • Oblong pod 4–8 cm long, containing 20–40 small seeds.
  • The seeds are black or brown in color and contain 40–45% oil.
  • They ripen within 90–120 days, depending on the variety and growing conditions.
    • The seeds germinate at temperatures of 3–5°C.

The first cotyledons are created and the root grows quickly.

The leaf rosette is formed, which accumulates energy for subsequent growth.

  • The plant goes into hibernation (in winter varieties) to protect against frosts
  • An important phase for the development of the root system.
  • Rapid growth of the shoot and formation of lateral branches.
  • Inflorescence (flowering) and high nitrogen (N) and boron (B) requirements.
  • Critical phase with maximum need for water and nutrients.
  • The flowers are fertilised and the creation of lobes begins.
  • Requires boron (B) sufficiency to form the lobes.
  • The pods fill and the oil content of the seeds increases.
  • High potassium (K) and sulfur (S) requirements for sugar and fatty acid metabolism.
  • The plants dry out gradually, the pods ripen and harden.
  • The moisture of the seeds is reduced to 8–10%, making them ready for harvest.

Frost Resistance:

  • Winter varieties can withstand temperatures as low as -15°C during the rosette stage.

Drought Adaptation:

  • The deep root system reduces drought-related losses, but adequate moisture is required during germination and flowering.

Nutrient Uptake:

  • About 70% of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) is absorbed before flowering.

  • Boron (B) is critical for pod development and oil quality.

3. Soil Preparation and Seeding

  • Sandy loam and clay loam soils with good drainage.
  • Moderate to high fertility soils, rich in organic matter.
  • Avoid heavy clay soils, as they can lead to root system suffocation due to poor drainage.

PH range: 6.0-7.5 (neutral to slightly alkaline).

  • Resistance to acidic soils up to pH 5.5 with calcium addition.
  • Saline soils: Strength up to EC 2–3 dS/m.

Preparation Steps:

Deep Plowing (Summer–Autumn):

  • Depth of 25–30 cm to break compacted layers and improve aeration.

Harrowing:

  • Creation of a fine and uniform seedbed for rapid germination.

Incorporation of Organic Matter:

  • Addition of manure or compost to increase organic content and enhance moisture retention.

Application of Base Fertilization:

  • Incorporation of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) before sowing.

Land Leveling (Optional):

  • Ensuring surface uniformity for better moisture management and irrigation efficiency.

  • Winter Varieties:
    • Northern Greece: Late September – early October.
    • Southern Greece: Mid – late October.
  • Spring Varieties:
    • March – April (mainly for irrigated areas).
  • Minimum Soil Temperature: 5–7°C for safe vegetation.
  • Optimal Soil Temperature: 10–15°C.
  • 1.5-3 cm depending on the type of soil.
  • In heavy soils: 1.5-2 cm.
  • On light soils: 2–3 cm.

 

Category

Spacing (cm)

Spacing (cm)

Plants/stremma

Winter varieties

35–45

5–7

40,000-60,000

Spring varieties

30–40

5–6

50,000-70,000

4. Fertilization and Nutrition

Balanced nutrition ensures:

Rapid rosette growth and a strong root system.

High production of pods and seeds.

Stress resistance (drought, frost).

Increase in oil content (up to 45%).

Disease prevention by strengthening the plant’s defenses.

It absorbs nutrients from deep layers of soil.

It utilizes fertilizer residues from previous crops.

High Sulfur Requirements (S):

Essential for the synthesis of sulfurous amino acids and oils.

Promotes pod growth and seed formation

Boron (B):

Critical for fertilization and lobe formation.

It is mainly required during the flowering phase.

Powerful Response to Foliar Nutrition:

Rapid correction of microelement deficiencies during the growth and flowering phase.

DevelopmentSeed Oil Seed

Stage

Main Nutrition Needs

Essential Nutrients

Sprouting and Rosetta

Development of a strong root system and shoots.

Phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N)

Development of Shoots and Branches

Enhancement of vegetative growth and creation of flower beds.

Nitrogen (N), Potassium (K), Sulfur (S)

Flowering and Fertilization

Flowering and fertilization for lobe formation.

Boron (B), Sulfur (S), Potassium (K)

Fill

storage and seed weight gain.

Potassium (K), Phosphorus (P)

Maturation

Stabilization of oil production and quality.

Potassium (K), Magnesium (Mg)

  • Nitrogen (N): 60-70% is absorbed until flowering.
  • Phosphorus (P): 80% is used during the rosette and flowering phase.
  • Potassium (K): 70-80% is required during the filling stage of the lobes.
  • Sulfur (S): High needs throughout development, especially before and during flowering.
  1. Nitrogen (N):
  • Leaf chlorosis, stunted growth and limited number of lobes.
  • Solution: Gradual application of N (basic and surface lubrication).
  1. Phosphorus (P):
  • Delayed root growth and small flowering.
  • Solution: Apply P before sowing.
  1. Potassium (K):
  • Poor seed quality, reduced oil content.
  • Solution: Add K to surface applications before flowering.
  1. Calcium (Ca):
  • Yellowing of the younger leaves and small pods.
  • Solution: Application of S in basic lubrication and foliar.
  1. Boron (B):
  • Poor fertilization and gaps in the lobes.
  • Solution: Foliar application B before flowering.

Rapeseed has high requirements in basic macroelements (N, P, K) and secondary elements (S, Mg) for the production of high quality seeds and increased oil content.

Role of nitrogen in rapeseed:
    • A key element of chlorophyll and proteins.
    • Enhances vegetative growth and photosynthesis.
    • Improves pod production and increases oil content.
    • Supports the creation of amino acids and fatty acids.

Nitrogen (N) requirements:

 

Stage

Dose (kg/acre)

Objective

Basic Application (Before Seeding)

5–7

growth in the rosette.

Superficial (Onset of Vegetation)

4–5

Support for the growth of shoots and branches.

Superficial (Before Flowering)

3–4

Boosting flowering and lobe-building.

Symptoms of Nitrogen Deficiency:

Yellowing of old leaves (chlorosis).

Reduced number of pods and seeds per pod.

Low oil content.

Role of Phosphorus in Rapeseed:
    • It enhances the growth of the root system.
    • Helps with energy transfer (ATP) and fatty acid synthesis.
    • Improves stress tolerance and fertilization.
    • Supports pod development and seed maturation.

Phosphorus (P) Requirements:

Stage

Dose (kg/acre)

Objective

Base (Before Seeding)

4–6

Radical growth and early leaf support.

Top dressing (Before Flowering)

2–3

Support for fertilization and seed filling.

Symptoms:
  • Delayed growth of roots and shoots.
  • Reduced flowering and fertilization.
  • Poor lobe development and low oil yield.
Role of Potassium in Oilseed Rape:
    • Improves sugar transport and seed quality.
    • Increases the oil content.
    • Enhances disease resistance and color quality.
    • Regulates mouth function and water intake.

Potassium (K) requirements:

 

Stage

Dose (kg/acre)

Objective

Base (Before Seeding)

6–8

growth and preparation for flowering.

Top dressing (Seed Filling)

4–5

Supporting the transfer of sugars and oils to seeds.

Symptoms of Potassium Deficiency:
  • Low quality seeds and oil.
  • Delayed growth and small lobes.
  • Sensitivity to drought and disease.
Role of Sulfur in Rapeseed:
    • Essential for the synthesis of sulfurous amino acids and proteins.
    • Improves oil quality.
    • Supports lobe development and fertilization.

Sulphur (S) requirements:

    • Basic fertilization: 3-4 kg/acre.
  • Foliar Application: 100–150 g/acre at critical stages (flowering).
Secondary Elements (Mg, Ca)
    1. Magnesium (Mg):
  • Regulates photosynthesis and enzymes.
  • Suggested dose: 2–4 kg Ca/ha.
  1. Calcium (Ca):
  • Enhances cellular structure and stress resistance.
  • Suggested dose: 2–4 kg Ca/ha.

The effective fertilization of rapeseed requires applications at different stages of development, in order to meet the increased needs in macronutrients and trace elements.

Target:

  • Supporting radical growth and creating a strong rosette.
  • Provide items that require stable availability (P, K, S).

Nutrient

Dose (kg/stremma)

Method of Application

Nitrogen (N)

5–7

Integration before sowing by ploughing.

Phosphorus (P₂O)

4–6

Deep integration for root system development.

Potassium (K₂O)

6–8

Addition for strength enhancement and nutrient transfer.

Sulphur (S)

3–4

Addition in sulfate form to support metabolic processes.

Boron (B)

0.2-0.3

Application before sowing or in foliar form later.

Note:

  • Soils with low organic matter benefit from the addition of organic fertilizers.
  • Application of calcium (Ca) to acidic soils for pH adjustment.

Target:

    • Supporting foliar growth and the creation of flower beds.
    • Maintaining high levels of nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) for lobe formation.

Stage

Nitrogen (N)

Potassium (K₂O)

Special Applications

Start of Vegetation (Rosette)

4–5 kg

3–4 kg

application (150–200 g/acre) foliar.

Growth (Branches)

4–6 kg

4–5 kg

Boost with B (100–150 g/acre) for fertilization.

Flowering (60–80 days)

3–4 kg

4–5 kg

Application S (100–150 g/acre) for oil quality.

Special Recommendations:

    • Application of nitrogen in two doses: before flowering and during lobe development.

Foliar fertilizers directly cover the deficiencies in trace elements (Zn, B, S).

Dosage adjustment based on soil analyses.

Target:

    • Enhancement of the filling of the pods and improvement of the oil content.
    • Stabilization of seed quality.

Stage

Nitrogen (N)

Potassium (K₂O)

Special Applications

Filling (80–100 days)

3–4 kg

3–4 kg

Add Mg (200–300 g/acre) for photosynthesis.

Maturation (110–120 days)

2–3 kg

2–3 kg

Application S (100–150 g/acre) for oil stabilization.

Rapeseed has high requirements in trace elements, especially at the critical stages of flowering and filling of the pods. Trace elements play an important role in fertilization, protein synthesis, and oil quality.

Boron (B):
    • Function:
      Important for fertilization and pod formation.
      It enhances the growth of cell walls and the transport of sugars.

Deficiency

  • Symptoms:
    • Gaps in the lobes (fertilization failure).
    • Delayed growth and reduced flowering.
  • Dose and Application:
    • Foliar: 100–150 g/acre during pre-flowering.
    • Basically: 0.2-0.3 kg/acre in granular form before sowing.
Zinc (Zn):
        • It is involved in enzyme synthesis and photosynthesis.Function:

      Supports root development and disease prevention.

Deficiency

  • Symptoms:
    • Microfolia and delayed blast development.
    • Pigments on the newer leaves.
  • Dose and Application:
    • Foliar: 150–200 g/acre in the shoot development phase.
    • Fertilization: Add 0.5-1 kg/acre.
Magnesium (Mg)
  • Function:
    Key component of chlorophyll for photosynthesis. Function:
    Basic component of chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
    Involved in energy transfer (ATP) and fatty acid synthesis.
  • Deficiency symptoms:
    • Yellowing between nerves in older leaves.
    • Poor oil quality and reduced seed production.
  • Dosage and Application:
    • Foliar: 200–300 g/acre as magnesium sulfate.
    • Dose: 1–2 kg/acre with chelations.
Sulphur (S)
    • Function:
      • Participates in the synthesis of sulfurous amino acids (methionine, cysteine).
      • Enhances oil quality and protein synthesis.

Deficiency

  • Symptoms:
    • Yellowing of younger leaves and small lobes.
    • Reduced oil content.
  • Dose and Application:
      • Foliar: 100–150 g/acre in critical stages (flowering).

    Basically: 3-4 kg/stremma in sulphate form before sowing.

 

Stage

Microelements and Doses

Target

20–30 days (Rosette)

Zn: 150–200 g/acre, Mg: 200–300 g/acre

Radical growth and enhancement of photosynthesis.

40–50 days (Stem Growth)

B: 100–150 g/acre, S: 100–150 g/acre

Boost flowering and stress resistance.

60–70 days (Lobe Filling)

K: 3–4 kg/acre, Mg: 200–300 g/acre, S: 100–150 g/acre

Increase in weight and oil content.

Immediate Absorption: Application of nutrients directly to the leaves for immediate correction of deficiencies.

Improvement of Fertilization: Increased fertilization and avoidance of gaps in the lobes.

Seed Quality Improvement: Increases protein and oil concentration.

Combined Application with Plant Protection: Cost and time savings with simultaneous application of pesticides.

5. Irrigation and Water Management

Average Water Consumption:

  • 300–400 mm per growing season.

  • Lower water requirements compared to other oilseed crops.

Drought Resistance:

  • A deep root system (up to 1.5–2 meters) allows moisture absorption from deeper soil layers.

  • Drought Sensitivity: Critical during flowering and pod filling stages.

Critical Irrigation Stages:

    • Rosette Development (20–40 days): Supports vegetative growth and root development.

    • Flowering (60–80 days): Peak water demand for successful pollination.

    • Pod Filling (80–100 days): Increases seed weight and oil content.

    1. Soil Moisture Monitoring:
  • Use moisture sensors to determine the optimal watering time.
  • Minimize excesses and reduce losses.
  1. Environmental Benefits:
  • Use of irrigation programs for gradual water applications depending on the development stage.
  • Emphasis on maintaining constant humidity during the critical stages (flowering – filling of lobes).

7. Harvesting and Storage

Harvest Timing:
Rapeseed is ready for harvest when:

  • The pods change color from green to yellow-brown.

  • The seeds reach their final color (black or dark brown) and harden.

  • Seed moisture drops to 8–10%.

Problems from Delayed Harvest:

  • Pod shattering and seed loss.

  • Losses caused by birds or insects.

  • Fungal development under high humidity conditions.

Harvest Under Ideal Conditions:

  • Preferably in the early morning or late afternoon when humidity helps reduce losses from pod shattering.

Seed Moisture:

  • Ideal harvest moisture: 8–10% to prevent losses.

  • At higher moisture levels (>12%), drying is required to avoid fungal growth and overheating.

Seed Drying:

  • Drying temperature: 40–45°C to maintain oil quality.

  • Use of ventilation systems to ensure uniform heat distribution.

  • Avoid overheating, which reduces oil content.

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