Grapevine growing guide

Recommended types:

Starter Fertilization

1. Introduction

1.1 Importance of Vine Cultivation

The vine (Vitis vinifera) is one of the oldest and most important cultivated plants in the world, with a history spanning thousands of years. In Greece, it plays a leading role in both agricultural production and cultural heritage, contributing significantly to winemaking as well as the production of table grapes and raisins.

Economic Importance:
Greece is renowned for its high-quality wines that reflect a distinct local identity.
Table grape varieties boost export activity, enjoying strong demand in global markets.
Vine-derived products support the processing industry (wines, spirits, vinegar).

Cultural Significance:
The vine is deeply woven into the fabric of Greek gastronomy and religious practices (wine in Holy Communion).
Traditional vineyards are considered part of the nation’s cultural legacy.

Nutritional and Health Value:
Table grapes are rich in vitamins, antioxidants, and dietary fiber.
Wine contains polyphenols, compounds linked to a reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases.

1.2 Categories of Vine Cultivation

Viticulture is traditionally divided into three main categories, based on the intended use of the grape products:

1. Table Grapes (for fresh consumption)
Varieties: Thompson Seedless (Sultana), Crimson Seedless, Italia.
Key Traits: Large, juicy berries with thin skin and excellent transport durability. High sugar content and a pleasant, sweet taste.
Primary Uses: Eaten fresh, added to fruit salads, or used for juice extraction.

2. Wine Grapes (for vinification)
Varieties:
Red: Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Xinomavro.
White: Muscat, Roditis, Savvatiano.
Key Traits: Smaller berries rich in sugars and acids—ideal for fermentation. Distinctive aromas and flavor profiles depending on the variety.
Primary Uses: Winemaking and distillate production (e.g., tsipouro, brandy).

3. Raisin Grapes (for drying and preservation)
Varieties: Sultana, Corinthian raisin (Currant).
Key Traits: Thin-skinned, sugar-rich grapes well-suited for drying.
Primary Uses: Production of raisins for use in baking, confectionery, and cooking.

1.3 Cultivation and Development Goals

The cultivation goals of grapevines vary depending on the final use of the product:

For Wine Production:
Focus on grape quality, sugar concentration, and aromatic complexity.
Development of vineyards using organic and sustainable practices to ensure premium wine production.

For Fresh Consumption (Table Grapes):
Priority is given to berry size, shelf life, and visual appeal.
Breeding of varieties resistant to handling and long-term storage.

For Raisin Production:
Emphasis on producing fruit with high sugar content to allow efficient drying.

2. Botanical Characteristics and Physiology

2.1 Classification and Botanical Description

The vine (Vitis vinifera) belongs to the Vitaceae family and is a deciduous climbing plant with exceptional adaptability to diverse environments.

Key Characteristics:

Roots: A strong and deep root system that allows access to moisture and essential nutrients.
Shoots (Canes): Long, flexible stems with nodes that produce leaves, flowers, and tendrils.
Leaves: Heart-shaped, palmate with deep lobes, functioning as the main site of photosynthesis.
Flowers: Small, greenish, and hermaphroditic, grouped in inflorescences.
Fruit (Berry): Fleshy berries of varying sizes and colors (green, red, black).

2.2 Root System

Extensive and Deep:
Root systems can penetrate 6–10 meters into the soil, especially in arid climates.

Lateral Development:
Roots spread outward from the trunk in search of moisture and nutrients.

Drought Tolerance:
Traditional grapevine varieties exhibit high resistance to hot and dry conditions.

Function:
Roots store carbohydrates to support early growth during bud break.

Variations by Cultivation Type:

- Wine Production: Irrigation is limited to encourage deeper root growth, enhancing the concentration of sugars and aromatic compounds.
- Table Grapes: More frequent irrigation is applied to increase berry size.

2.3 Shoots and Tendrils

Shoots (Canes):
Grow rapidly during the vegetative season.
Nodes bear leaves, flowers, and lateral shoots.
Tendrils:
Enable the plant to climb and anchor itself to wires or pergolas.
Support vertical growth, maximizing exposure to sunlight.

2.4 Leaves and Photosynthesis

Shape and Color:
Palmate leaves with 3–5 lobes, green during the growing season and turning yellow in autumn.
Function:
Primary site of photosynthesis, producing carbohydrates that are stored in the fruit and roots.
Impact on Fruit Quality:
Abundant foliage → Greater sugar production, ideal for winemaking.
Limited foliage → Controlled fruit growth, enhancing the quality of table grapes.

2.5 Flowers and Pollination

Flowers:
Hermaphroditic (self-pollinating) or female (in certain varieties).
Inflorescences appear in the form of a cluster (panicle).
Pollination:
Mainly by wind, less commonly by insects.
Successful fruit set depends on nutrient availability and climatic conditions.
Flowering:
Occurs in spring (April–May).

2.6 Fruits and Berry Formation

Wine Grapes:
Smaller berries with high sugar content and intense aromas.
Table Grapes:
Larger berries with thin skin, suitable for fresh consumption.
Fruit Development Stages:
Fruit Set: Formation of small berries.
Berry Growth: Accumulation of sugars.
Ripening: Development of color, flavor, and aroma.

2.7 Phenology and Growth Cycle

Dormancy (Winter):
The plant rests and stores carbohydrates.
Budburst and Vegetative Growth (Spring):
Initiation of budbreak and development of leaves and shoots.
Flowering (April–May):
Formation of inflorescences and fruit set.
Fruit Development (Summer):
Growth and ripening of the berries.
Harvest (Autumn):
Grape harvesting, depending on the intended use (wine or table grapes)

3. Vineyard Establishment and Planting Preparation

3.1 Site and Climate Selection

The success of grapevine cultivation largely depends on the proper selection of location and climatic conditions.

Climatic Requirements:
Temperature:
Optimal growth temperature: 15–30°C.
Resistance to low temperatures down to -15°C (winter) and high temperatures up to 35°C (summer).
Sunlight:
Essential for photosynthesis and sugar accumulation.
South-facing vineyards are ideal.
Humidity:
Low humidity reduces the risk of diseases (powdery mildew, downy mildew).
For table grapes, an irrigation system is required in hot and dry climates.
Wind:
Mild winds help ventilate the plants, reducing the risk of fungal infections.

3.2 Soil Preparation

The vine can grow in a wide range of soils, but deep, well-drained soils with slightly acidic to neutral pH (6–7) are ideal.

Soil Analysis:
Determination of fertility, pH, and organic matter content.
Soil testing for nutrient levels.

Preparation:
Deep plowing (40–60 cm): Improves drainage and aeration.
Enrichment with organic matter: Addition of compost or well-rotted manure (1–2 tons per stremma).
pH adjustment: Application of lime for acidic soils or gypsum for alkaline soils.
Weed control: Pre-planting application of herbicides.

Drainage System:
Installation of drainage pipes in heavy soils.

3.3 Selection of Varieties and Rootstocks

Variety selection depends on the intended end use (wine or fresh consumption) and local conditions.

Wine Grape Varieties:
Red:
Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Xinomavro, Agiorgitiko.
Characterized by rich aromas and high tannin content.

White:
Savvatiano, Roditis, Muscat.
Produce wines with fruity aromas and good acidity.

Table Grape Varieties:
Thompson Seedless (Sultana):
Seedless variety with high commercial value.
Crimson Seedless:
Red, seedless grapes with a crisp texture.
Italia:
Large, aromatic grapes with good transport resistance.

3.4 Planting and Planting Density

Planting Time:
Autumn (October–November) or Spring (March–April).
Planting Distances:
For wine grapes:
1.5–2.0 meters between plants and 2.5–3.0 meters between rows.
Denser planting encourages plant competition and quality.
For table grapes:
2.0–2.5 meters between plants and 3.0–3.5 meters between rows.
Wider spacing allows for the development of large grape clusters.
Support and Training:
Guyot system for wine grapes.
Pergola or Cordon system for table grapes.

3.5 Trellising and Training Systems

Guyot System:
Ideal for wine grapes, allowing controlled shoot growth and better yield management.
Pergola System:
Suitable for table grapes, providing shading and protection from excessive sunlight.
Cordon System (Horizontal Trellising):
Appropriate for easy vineyard management and mechanical harvesting.

4.1 Nutritional Requirements of Grapevines by Category (Wine and Table Grapes)

4.1.1 Macronutrients

Nitrogen (N):
Function:
Essential for vegetative growth and photosynthesis.
Enhances berry size and leaf color.
Wine Grapes:
Controlled application to avoid excessive vegetative growth that negatively affects sugar concentration.
Recommended dose: 8–12 kg N/hectare.
Table Grapes:
Higher application to promote berry size and juiciness.
Recommended dose: 12–18 kg N/hectare.
Phosphorus (P):
Function:
Promotes root development, fruit set, and energy transfer.
Wine Grapes:
Low requirement to preserve flavor and aroma.
Recommended dose: 3–5 kg P/hectare.
Table Grapes:
Higher demand to improve skin strength and quality.
Recommended dose: 5–8 kg P/hectare.
Potassium (K):
Function:
Essential for sugar accumulation and fruit ripening.
Improves resistance to disease and color quality.
Wine Grapes:
Crucial for sugar–acid balance in berries.
Recommended dose: 10–15 kg K/hectare.
Table Grapes:
Greater demand for size and crispness.
Recommended dose: 15–20 kg K/hectare.
Calcium (Ca):
Function:
Strengthens cell walls, prevents berry cracking, and enhances shelf life.
Wine Grapes:
Lower needs, as emphasis is on aroma concentration rather than size.
Recommended dose: 2–4 kg Ca/hectare.
Table Grapes:
Higher requirement to improve transport resistance.
Recommended dose: 4–6 kg Ca/hectare.
Magnesium (Mg):
Function:
Central role in photosynthesis and energy metabolism.
Wine Grapes:
Supports chlorophyll stability for consistent photosynthetic activity.
Recommended dose: 2–3 kg Mg/hectare.
Table Grapes:
Improves transport resistance and prevents leaf chlorosis.
Recommended dose: 3–4 kg Mg/hectare.

4.1.2 Micronutrients and Their Role

Boron (B): Enhances flowering and fruit set.
Dose: 0.5–1 kg/hectare via foliar sprays before flowering.
Zinc (Zn): Enhances flower fertility and aroma concentration.
Dose: 0.5–0.8 kg/hectare via foliar sprays.
Iron (Fe): Prevents chlorosis and boosts photosynthesis.
Dose: 1–2 kg/hectare using chelated products.
Copper (Cu): Protects against fungal diseases and supports tissue structure.
Dose: Applied via foliar sprays during spring.

4.1.3 Differences in Wine and Fruit Requirements

Wine Grapes:
Focus on sugar accumulation and acid retention for high-quality wines.
Limited nitrogen use to control excessive shoot growth.
Emphasis on potassium and magnesium for color and flavor stability.

Table Grapes:
Focus on berry enlargement and durability.
Higher nitrogen and potassium doses to improve commercial appearance and transport resistance.
Calcium is applied to enhance skin texture and strength.

4.2.1 Macroelements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S)

1. Nitrogen (N)
Function: Essential for vegetative growth, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis.
Promotes chlorophyll and the development of leaves and shoots.
Deficiency symptoms: Chlorosis on older leaves and limited shoot growth.
Dosage and application:
Wine grapes:

Base fertilization: 5–7 kg/hectare (autumn or spring)
Top dressing: 3–5 kg/hectare before flowering
Table grapes:
Base fertilization: 8–10 kg/hectare
Top dressing: 5–7 kg/hectare in two applications (spring and summer)

2. Phosphorus (P)
Function: Improves root development, fruit set, and ripening.
Important for energy transfer (ATP).
Deficiency symptoms: Poor root growth, dark green leaves, delayed fruit ripening.
Dosage and application:
Wine grapes: 3–5 kg/hectare (autumn)
Table grapes: 5–8 kg/hectare (spring or autumn)

3. Potassium (K)
Function: Enhances sugar accumulation, ripening, and stress resistance.
Important for fruit quality and transport durability.
Deficiency symptoms: Leaf edge burns, poor ripening, low sugar levels.
Dosage and application:
Wine grapes:

Base fertilization: 10–12 kg/hectare (winter)
Top dressing: 5–8 kg/hectare before ripening
Table grapes:
Base fertilization: 12–15 kg/hectare (spring)
Top dressing: 8–10 kg/hectare during berry enlargement

4. Calcium (Ca)
Function: Strengthens cell structure and resistance to berry cracking.
Deficiency symptoms: Berry cracking, poor transport resistance, necrosis at shoot tips.
Dosage and application:
Wine grapes: 2–4 kg/hectare via fertigation
Table grapes: 4–6 kg/hectare via foliar sprays during fruit development

5. Magnesium (Mg)
Function: Essential for photosynthesis and chlorophyll production.
Deficiency symptoms: Interveinal yellowing on older leaves.
Dosage and application:
Wine grapes: 2–3 kg/hectare
Table grapes: 3–4 kg/hectare via foliar sprays

6. Sulfur (S)
Function: Enhances protein synthesis and chlorophyll.
Dosage and application: 2–4 kg/hectare via fertigation or foliar application.

4.2.2 Micronutrients

Boron (B):
Promotes flower fertility and fruit set.
Dose: 0.5–1 kg/hectare.
Zinc (Zn):
Important for leaf formation and shoot development.
Dose: 0.5–0.8 kg/hectare.
Iron (Fe):
Prevents leaf chlorosis.
Dose: 1–2 kg/hectare with chelated products.
Manganese (Mn):
Regulates photosynthesis and enzyme activity.
Dose: 0.3–0.5 kg/hectare.

4.3 Fertilisation Programmes by Growth Stage

The correct timing of fertilizer application is critical for optimal vine growth and the improvement of product quality. The fertilization schedule varies depending on whether the vine is intended for wine or table grape production, as well as on the plant’s growth stage.

4.3.1 Growth Stages and Nutrient Requirements

Dormancy (Winter – November to February):
Main goals:
Replenishment of soil nutrient reserves.
Improvement of organic matter and preparation for the next growth cycle.
Applications:
- Base fertilization with organic matter (compost or manure): 1–2 tons/hectare
- Phosphorus (P): 3–5 kg/hectare
- Potassium (K): 10–12 kg/hectare to increase cold resistance
Budbreak (March–April):
Main goals:
Support of vegetative growth and root activity.
Applications:
- Nitrogen (N): 5–7 kg/hectare for initial leaf emergence
- Magnesium (Mg): 1–2 kg/hectare to support photosynthesis
- Boron (B): 0.5–1 kg/hectare for improved flowering
- Foliar application of Iron (Fe): 100–150 g/100L water to prevent chlorosis
Flowering and Fruit Set (May–June):
Main goals:
Support flowering and fruit set.
Prevent deficiencies affecting cluster development.
Applications:
- Nitrogen (N): 3–5 kg/hectare to support growth
- Potassium (K): 5–8 kg/hectare to boost fertility
- Phosphorus (P): 2–3 kg/hectare to improve flowering
- Zinc (Zn): 0.5 kg/hectare via foliar spray to enhance fertility
Fruit Development (June–July):
Main goals:
Enhance berry growth and sugar accumulation.
For Wine Grapes:
- Potassium (K): 8–10 kg/hectare to increase sugar content
- Calcium (Ca): 2–4 kg/hectare for skin resistance
- Magnesium (Mg): 1–2 kg/hectare to sustain photosynthesis
For Table Grapes:
- Potassium (K): 10–15 kg/hectare to increase berry size
- Calcium (Ca): 4–6 kg/hectare for berry firmness
- Foliar application of Boron (B): 100 g/100L to support berry formation
Ripening (August–September):
Main goals:
Finalize ripening and improve quality.
For Wine Grapes:
- Potassium (K): 5–8 kg/hectare to improve taste and acidity
- Phosphorus (P): 2–3 kg/hectare to stabilize sugar levels
For Table Grapes:
- Calcium (Ca): 3–5 kg/hectare to maintain texture and resistance
- Magnesium (Mg): 1–2 kg/hectare to enhance quality
Post-Harvest (October):
Main goals:
Restore nutrient reserves.
Prepare the plant for the next season.
Applications:
- Organic matter: 1–2 tons/hectare to improve soil
- Potassium (K): 8–10 kg/hectare to strengthen plant reserves
- Phosphorus (P): 3–5 kg/hectare to support the root system

4.3.2 Special Lubrication Applications for High Quality

Fertigation:
Continuous supply of nutrients through drip irrigation systems.
Advantages:
- Uniform nutrient distribution
- Improved nutrient absorption
Foliar Fertilization:
Used to address deficiencies during critical growth stages (e.g., flowering, berry development).
Recommended doses:
- Nitrogen (N): 200–300 g/100L of water
- Potassium (K): 200–300 g/100L of water
- Magnesium (Mg): 100–150 g/100L of water

4.4 Hydropollution and Interfaunal Nutrition

Fertigation and foliar fertilization are modern nutrient application techniques that ensure precision, cost-effectiveness, and immediate positive impact on grapevine cultivation.

4.4.1 Fertigation

Definition
Fertigation is the application of water-soluble or liquid fertilizers through irrigation systems (mainly drip irrigation), allowing immediate absorption of nutrients by the roots.

Advantages

Precise application: Delivers essential nutrients directly to the root zone with minimal losses
Efficiency: Saves fertilizers and water by reducing leaching and ensuring accurate dosing
Real-time management: Adjust nutrient input based on crop needs
Flexibility: Easily integrated with the irrigation schedule

Application Schedule by Stage

Budbreak (Mar–Apr)

Nitrogen (N): 3–5 kg/ha
Phosphorus (P): 2–3 kg/ha
Magnesium (Mg): 1–2 kg/ha

Flowering & Fruit Set (May–Jun)

Nitrogen (N): 2–3 kg/ha
Potassium (K): 5–7 kg/ha
Boron (B): 0.5 kg/ha

Fruit Development (Jun–Jul)

Potassium (K): 8–10 kg/ha
Calcium (Ca): 2–4 kg/ha
Magnesium (Mg): 1–2 kg/ha

Ripening (Aug–Sep)

Potassium (K): 5–8 kg/ha
Phosphorus (P): 2–3 kg/ha

Post-Harvest (Oct)

Compost: 1–2 tons/ha
Potassium (K): 8–10 kg/ha

4.4.2 Interleaf fertilisation

Definition
Foliar fertilization involves applying nutrients directly to the leaves through spraying, allowing for rapid absorption and correction of deficiencies during critical growth stages.

Advantages

Fast action: Nutrients are absorbed within a few hours
Quick correction of deficiencies: Effective when soil nutrient availability is limited
High efficiency during critical phases: Enhances flower fertility and sugar concentration

Foliar Spray Programs

Pre-Flowering (May)

Boron (B): 50–80 g/100L water to boost fertility
Zinc (Zn): 80–100 g/100L water to support flowering

During Fruit Set (June)

Calcium (Ca): 150–200 g/100L water to prevent berry splitting
Potassium (K): 200–300 g/100L water to increase sugar content and support ripening

Fruit Development (July)

Magnesium (Mg): 100–150 g/100L water to sustain photosynthesis
Iron (Fe): 100–150 g/100L water to prevent chlorosis

Pre-Harvest (August)

Potassium (K): 200 g/100L water to enhance flavor and color

4.4.3 Combined use of hydrofertilisation and interleaf applications

For optimal results, the two methods can be combined:

Fertigation for gradual nutrient supply during the vegetative period
Foliar sprays for rapid correction of deficiencies during critical stages (flowering, ripening)

4.5 Symptoms of Nutrient Deficiencies and Corrections

Nutrient deficiencies in grapevines affect growth, yield, and fruit quality. Timely diagnosis and proper management of these issues ensure crop health and economic performance.

4.5.1 Macronutrient deficiencies (N, P, K, Ca, Mg)

1. Nitrogen (N):
Symptoms:

Chlorosis (yellowing) on older leaves
Limited shoot growth and small leaf size
Reduced berry size and number

Treatment:

Soil: 5–10 kg/hectare of nitrogen in spring
Foliar: Urea sprays (0.5–1%) during critical growth stages
Fertigation: Gradual application during budbreak (March–April)

2. Phosphorus (P):
Symptoms:

Purplish-red discoloration on leaf edges
Slow root development and poor fruit set
Delayed berry ripening

Treatment:

Soil: 3–5 kg/hectare of superphosphate (P₂O₅)
Foliar: Monopotassium phosphate (KH₂PO₄) at 1% concentration
Fertigation: Application of phosphate salts during early growth

3. Potassium (K):
Symptoms:

Leaf edge burn and marginal necrosis
Poor berry development and low sugar content
Increased susceptibility to downy and powdery mildew

Treatment:

Soil: 10–15 kg/hectare of potassium sulfate (K₂SO₄) or potassium nitrate
Foliar: Potassium sulfate sprays (1–2%) during fruit development
Fertigation: Regular application of 8–10 kg/hectare in critical stages (June–July)

4. Calcium (Ca):
Symptoms:

Berry cracking and weak skin resistance
Delayed ripening and fruit softening

Treatment:

Soil: 4–6 kg/hectare of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)
Foliar: Calcium nitrate sprays (0.5–1%) during berry growth
Fertigation: Application of Ca(NO₃)₂ in small doses

5. Magnesium (Mg):
Symptoms:

Interveinal yellowing on older leaves (chlorosis)
Reduced photosynthesis and delayed growth

Treatment:

Soil: 2–4 kg/hectare of magnesium sulfate (MgSO₄)
Foliar: Magnesium sulfate sprays (1–2%) during critical stages
Fertigation: Gradual application together with potassium

4.5.2 Trace element deficiencies (B, Zn, Fe, Mn)

1. Boron (B):
Symptoms:

Poor fruit set and flower drop
Leaf and shoot deformities

Treatment:

Foliar: Sprays with borax (0.1–0.2%) before flowering
Fertigation: 0.5–1 kg/hectare

2. Zinc (Zn):
Symptoms:

Small, deformed leaves (“little leaf”)
Reduced berry size and delayed ripening

Treatment:

Foliar: Zinc sulfate sprays (0.1–0.2%)
Fertigation: 0.5–0.8 kg/hectare

3. Iron (Fe):
Symptoms:

Chlorosis on young leaves with prominent green veins

Treatment:

Foliar: Sprays with chelated iron (EDDHA), 100–150 g/100L water
Soil: Use of chelated iron products

4. Manganese (Mn):
Symptoms:

Leaf edge chlorosis and deformities

Treatment:

Foliar: Manganese sulfate sprays (0.1–0.3%)
Soil: 0.3–0.5 kg/hectare

4.6.1 Soil and phylogenetic analysis

Soil Analysis
Purpose:
Assessment of soil fertility and nutrient status.
Sampling:
Collected at depths of 0–30 cm and 30–60 cm to evaluate both surface and subsoil layers.
Parameters:
pH, organic matter, macronutrients (N, P, K), and micronutrients (Fe, Zn, B).
Frequency:
Every 2–3 years.
Leaf Tissue Analysis
Purpose:
Detection of nutrient deficiencies during the growing season.
Sampling:
Leaf collection during fruit set or ripening stages.
Advantages:
Real-time evaluation of nutrient uptake by the plant.
Frequency:
Annually during critical growth phases.

5. Irrigation and Water Management

5.1 Water Requirements by Cultivation Type

For Wine Grapes
Objectives:
- Maintain moderate water stress to enhance sugar and aroma concentration
- Control shoot growth to improve flavor profile
Water Consumption:
- 300–400 mm/year, depending on climate and soil type
Irrigation Practices:
- Limited irrigation after fruit set (June–July)
- Stop irrigation 2–3 weeks before harvest to boost sugar levels
For Table Grapes
Objectives:
- Promote berry size and resistance to transport
- Ensure uniform ripening and crisp texture
Water Consumption:
- 400–600 mm/year, especially for fresh market varieties
Irrigation Practices:
- Regular watering during berry enlargement (June–July)
- Maintain soil moisture during ripening to prevent cracking

5.3 Irrigation Programmes by Development Stage

Dormancy (Winter):
- Limited irrigation to store moisture in the soil.
Budbreak (Spring):
- Wine grapes: Reduced irrigation to control vegetative growth
- Table grapes: Regular irrigation to support shoot development
Flowering and Fruit Set (May–June):
- Wine grapes: Light irrigation to stabilize flowering
- Table grapes: Increased moisture for improved fruit set
Fruit Development (June–July):
- Wine grapes: Water restriction to concentrate sugars
- Table grapes: Increased irrigation to promote berry enlargement
Ripening (August):
- Wine grapes: Irrigation cut-off before harvest
- Table grapes: Light irrigation to maintain moisture and prevent cracking

5.4 Water stress management

Signs of Water Stress:
- Leaves: Curling and brittleness
- Shoots: Reduced growth and browning
- Fruits: Smaller size or uneven ripening
Management Techniques:
- Soil moisture sensors: Measure soil water levels for precise irrigation
- Mulching: Reduces evaporation and retains soil moisture
- Deep irrigation: Encourages deeper root growth

6. Plant protection

6.1 Diseases and Treatment

Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola):
Symptoms: Yellow-green spots on leaves, white fungal growth on the underside.
Control:
- Preventive sprays with copper-based or copper-manganese formulations
- Soil drainage to avoid excess moisture
Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator):
Symptoms: Grayish powder on leaves, shoots, and berries
Control:
- Sulfur or biological fungicides
- Good plant ventilation and avoidance of dense foliage
Botrytis Bunch Rot (Botrytis cinerea):
Symptoms: Berry rot with gray mold
Control:
- Preventive fungicide sprays during ripening
- Removal of infected fruit
Eutypa Dieback (Eutypa lata):
Symptoms: Arm dieback and reduced vine growth
Control:
- Pruning and destruction of infected parts
- Protection of pruning wounds with sealing products

6.2 Enemies and Countermeasures

Grape Berry Moth (Lobesia botrana):
Symptoms: Berry infestation and rotting
Control:
- Biological control with Bacillus thuringiensis
- Pheromone traps for population monitoring
Leafhopper (Empoasca vitis):
Symptoms: Leaf yellowing and sap extraction
Control:
- Sprays with pyrethrins
- Use of biological insecticides
Scale Insects (Parthenolecanium corni):
Symptoms: Sticky secretions and sooty mold development
Control:
- Summer oils and biological insecticides

6.3 Weed control and soil management

Mechanical control: Use of rotary tiller or cultivator.
Green manure (cover crops): Suppresses weed growth.
Selective herbicides: Applied when weed competition is excessive.

7. Trimming and shaping

7.1 Skeleton Formation (Framing Trimming)

Objective:
To establish a strong framework that supports long-term growth and productivity.

Wine Grapes (lower growth):

Guyot System (single or double):
One or two fruiting canes are retained along with 1–2 renewal spurs.
Used for controlled yields and concentrated aromas.
Cordon System:
Horizontal training along wire with multiple short spurs.
Suitable for mechanical harvesting.

Table Grapes (taller growth):

Pergola System:
Provides shading and allows the development of large clusters.
Ideal for fresh market grapes.
Head Training System:
Offers greater flexibility in shoot orientation.
Mainly used for raisin grapes or vigorous varieties.

7.2 Productive pruning (Fruit pruning)

Objective:
Regulate yield and improve fruit quality.

Wine Grapes:

Controlled fruiting: Removal of excess shoots to enhance sugar concentration
Fruiting canes: Pruned to 6–10 buds for balanced growth

Table Grapes:

Cluster preservation: Less severe pruning (10–12 buds) to maintain large bunches
Size improvement: Removal of weak or excess shoots

7.3 Rejuvenation pruning (renewal)

Objective:
Renew aged plants and restore productivity.

Techniques:

Removal of old arms: Elimination of woody parts and replacement with new shoots
Thinning of dense shoots: Improves ventilation and sunlight exposure
Pruning after stress or frost: Supports regeneration by removing damaged tissue

7.4 Pruning by Development Stage

Winter Pruning (January–February):
Defines the plant’s basic structure and prepares it for the new growth season.
Removes dry or weak branches.
Green Pruning (Spring–Summer):
- Shoot thinning: Eliminates excess growth to improve air circulation
- Topping: Supports fruit set and berry coloration
- Leaf removal: Enhances sunlight exposure during ripening

8. Harvesting and post-harvest management

8.1 Harvest time

For Wine:
Goals:
Maximize sugar concentration (Brix) and acid balance for premium quality wines.
Harvest Criteria:
- Brix: 20–24° for white wines, 24–28° for red wines
- pH: 3.2–3.6 depending on the variety
- Organoleptic evaluation: Assessment of aromas and flavors
Harvest Period:
August–September, varying by region and variety
For Table Grapes:
Goals:
Maintain crispness, sweetness, and transport durability.
Harvest Criteria:
- Brix: 16–20°, depending on the variety
- Skin firmness: Resistance to handling
- Commercial appearance: Uniform size and color
Harvest Period:
July–September for fresh market grapes

8.2 Harvesting methods

Manual Harvesting:
Advantages:
- Preserves the integrity of the grapes
- Suitable for premium wines and table grapes
Disadvantages:
- Higher labor costs
Mechanical Harvesting:
Advantages:
- Fast and cost-effective for large vineyards
- Ideal for wine grape production
Disadvantages:
- Potential damage to grapes
- Not suitable for table grape quality requirements

8.3 Post-harvest management

1. Transport:
  Wine Grapes:
  - Rapid transport to the winery to prevent oxidation
  - Use of stainless steel or ventilated plastic containers
  Table Grapes:
  - Protection from mechanical damage using shallow boxes (20–25 kg)
  - Cooling immediately after harvest to 0–5°C
  Storage and Preservation:
  Wine Grapes:
  - Processing within 24–48 hours
  - Use of refrigeration to maintain raw material at low temperatures
  Table Grapes:
  - Storage at 0–2°C with 90–95% relative humidity
  - Storage duration: 2–3 months for resistant varieties
  - Use of controlled atmosphere (CA) storage for long-term preservation