Barley Cultivation Guide
Recommended types:
Starter Fertilization
Top dressing
1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Wheat
Barley (Hordeum vulgare) is one of the oldest and most important crops worldwide, with a history dating back over 10,000 years. It is widely used for human consumption, as a primary raw material in beer production, and naturally as animal feed.
Nutritional and Industrial Value:
Human Nutrition: Used in the production of bakery products, porridges, and beverages; rich in dietary fiber, vitamins (B1, B3), and minerals (iron, magnesium, phosphorus).
Malting and Brewing: Barley is a key raw material in brewing due to its ability to be malted.
Animal Feed: About 70% of production is used as feed because of its high energy and protein content.
Industrial Use: Employed in ethanol production and biodegradable products.
Economic Importance:
In Greece, barley is extensively cultivated mainly for animal feed and brewing.
It contributes significantly to the agricultural economy and export activity.
Adaptability:
Grows in a variety of soils and climatic conditions.
More drought-resistant than wheat, making it suitable for dry, hot regions.
2. Botanical and Physiological Characteristics
2.1.1 Root System
Root System: Fibrous and extensive.
Depth of Development: 50–100 cm, depending on soil type and moisture availability.
Functions:
Provides structural support to the plant.
Absorbs water and nutrients efficiently.
Exhibits drought tolerance due to strong water absorption capacity.
2.1.2 Shoot
Structure: Hollow cylindrical stem (culm) with 5–7 nodes and internodes.
Height: 50–120 cm, depending on variety and growing conditions.
Characteristics:
Capable of producing tillers (side shoots) that increase productivity.
Adapts well to low temperatures during early growth stages.
2.1.3 Sheets
Shape: Long, narrow, and flat leaves with parallel venation.
Surface: Covered with a waxy coating to reduce water loss through evaporation.
Function:
Photosynthesis and energy production.
Regulation of plant transpiration.
2.1.4 Flowers
Structure: Flowers arranged in the form of an ear (spike) with a harmonious layout.
Self-pollination: Barley is self-pollinating, ensuring production stability.
Cross-pollination significance: Extremely rare, but can be utilized in breeding and genetic improvement programs.
2.1.5 Fruit (Grain)
Type: Caryopsis (grain fruit type).
Color: Ranges from light yellow to golden yellow or brown.
Size: 6-10 mm in length.
Content:
Starch (60-65%)
Proteins (8-14%)
Trace elements and vitamins
2.2.1 Germination
Duration: 7-10 days after sowing.
Temperature: Minimum 3-4°C, ideal 12-18°C.
Conditions: Soil moisture above 50% saturation.
Importance: Development of a strong root system for support and nutrient uptake.
2.2.2 Tillering
Duration: 2–4 weeks after germination.
Function: Formation of lateral shoots (tillers) that increase productive capacity.
Requirements: Good availability of nitrogen (N) and water.
2.2.3 Stem Elongation
Duration: 4–6 weeks after growth initiation.
Function: Stem elongation and preparation for flowering.
Requirements: Balanced nutrition (N, P, K) to support stem development.
2.2.4 Flowering
Duration: 10–15 days after stem elongation.
Main Feature: Self-pollination and seed formation.
Critical Stage: Drought or high temperatures reduce fertilization rates.
2.2.5 Grain Filling
Duration: 3–4 weeks.
Goal: Accumulation of starch and proteins in the grains.
Risks: Nutrient or water deficiencies can negatively affect quality.
2.2.6 Maturity
Duration: 100–120 days after sowing.
Maturity Criteria:
Low grain moisture (12–14%).
Drying of leaves and stems.
Importance: Harvest timing determines grain quality and yield.
2.3.1 Climate
Optimal Temperatures: 12–22°C for growth, 25–30°C for ripening.
Tolerance to Low Temperatures: Down to -8°C during early stages.
Drought Resistance: High, but requires moisture during critical growth stages (flowering and grain filling).
2.3.2 Soil
Ideal pH: 6.0–7.5
Soil Type: Well-drained soils (sandy-loam).
Organic Matter: >2% for optimal fertility.
Salinity: Tolerant up to EC 8 dS/m.
3. Soil Preparation and Seeding
3.1.1 Preparation Objectives
- Βελτίωση της Δομής του Εδάφους:
- Αερισμός και χαλάρωση του εδάφους για ομαλή ανάπτυξη ριζών.
- Απομάκρυνση Ζιζανίων:
- Μείωση ανταγωνισμού με το κριθάρι στα αρχικά στάδια.
- Συγκράτηση Υγρασίας:
- Δημιουργία συνθηκών που διατηρούν την υγρασία και μειώνουν την εξάτμιση.
- Ομαλή Επιφάνεια:
- Εξασφάλιση ομοιόμορφης σποράς και καλής επαφής σπόρου-εδάφους.
3.1.2 Crop Preparation Practices
Tillage (Primary Cultivation):
Depth: 25-35 cm for soil structure renewal and inversion.
Purpose: Weed destruction and incorporation of organic matter.
Rototilling:
Depth: 10-15 cm for leveling and fine soil crumbling.
Purpose: Creation of a suitable seedbed.
Compaction (Rolling):
Purpose: Surface layering for better seed-to-soil contact.
Organic Matter Improvement:
Addition of compost or well-rotted manure (2-3 tons/acre).
3.3.1 Seeding Depth
Ideal Depth: 3-5 cm, depending on soil type.
Light Soils: 5-6 cm.
Heavy Soils: 3-4 cm.
Reason:
Prevents washout and protects seeds from birds.
Ensures adequate moisture for germination.
3.3.2 Seeding Density
Quantity: 12-14 kg per stremma.
Number of Seeds: 350-450 seeds per m².
3.3.3 Seeding Techniques
Row Planting:
Row spacing: 15-20 cm.
Ideal for better aeration and ease of cultivation operations.
Broadcasting:
Suitable for small areas.
Requires rolling to ensure uniform seed coverage.
4. Lubrication
4.1.1 Importance of Lubrication
Fertilization directly affects:
Yield performance: Maximizing grain quantity per unit area.
Grain quality: Improving protein content and other key components.
Resilience: Enhancing resistance to diseases, drought, and lodging.
Growth rate: Promoting uniform development and maturation.
4.1.2 Lubrication objectives
Vegetative and Root System Development:
Supply adequate nitrogen (N) to enhance tillering and increase biomass.
Apply phosphorus (P) to promote root growth and development of strong roots.
Grain Development and Production Quality:
Provide potassium (K) to improve grain quality, protein content, and disease resistance.
Apply micronutrients such as zinc (Zn), where needed, to support sugar transport and grain development.
Environmental Protection:
Avoid over-fertilization to reduce nitrate leaching into groundwater.
Use stabilized fertilizers to limit nutrient losses.
4.1.3 Factors affecting fertilisation
Soil Analysis:
Determine organic matter levels and available nutrients (pH, P, K, N).
Adjust fertilization based on actual deficiencies.
Climate and Weather Conditions:
In high rainfall areas, additional nitrogen is needed due to leaching.
In dry regions, emphasis is placed on phosphorus and potassium to improve drought resistance.
Barley Variety:
Malting varieties require lower nitrogen levels to maintain malt quality.
Feed varieties need higher protein content, thus higher nitrogen doses.
Production Goal:
High yields require increased nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) applications.
Malt production demands controlled fertilization for quality optimization.
Growth Stages:
Different nutrient needs per stage:
Tillering: Nitrogen for biomass increase.
Grain development: Potassium and zinc for quality and resilience.
Soil Texture and Composition:
Light, sandy soils require more frequent applications due to higher leaching.
Clay soils retain nutrients better, requiring fewer applications.
4.1.4 Overview of macronutrients and micronutrients
Nitrogen (N):
Role: Biomass development, protein synthesis, and increase of leaf surface area.
Deficiency: Yellowing of leaves, reduced growth.
Excess: Excessive vegetative growth, lodging, and increased disease susceptibility.
Phosphorus (P):
Role: Root development, flowering, and grain maturation.
Deficiency: Delayed growth, purple leaves, weak root system.
Excess: Inhibits zinc (Zn) uptake.
Potassium (K):
Role: Metabolism regulation, drought and disease resistance.
Deficiency: Brown leaf edges, weak stems, low-quality grains.
Excess: Inhibits magnesium (Mg) uptake.
Secondary Nutrients (Ca, Mg, S):
Role: Strengthen cell walls, activate enzymes, protein production.
Requirements: Smaller amounts but critical for quality.
Micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn):
Role: Enzyme synthesis and photosynthesis.
Deficiency: Chlorosis and leaf deformation.
Needs: Especially important in poor soils and for foliar feeding.
4.2.1 Macronutrient elements
Άζωτο (N)
Ρόλος στο Φυτό:
Ενισχύει τη βλάστηση και την ανάπτυξη των φύλλων.
Αυξάνει τον αριθμό αδελφιών (παραπλεύρων βλαστών) και καρπών.
Προωθεί τη σύνθεση πρωτεϊνών και χλωροφύλλης.
Απαιτήσεις:
Συνολική δόση: 10-15 κιλά N/στρέμμα (ανάλογα με τον τύπο εδάφους και την ποικιλία).
Κατανομή:
Βασική λίπανση (50-60%): Κατά τη σπορά.
Επιφανειακή λίπανση (40-50%): Κατά το αδέλφωμα και την επιμήκυνση του βλαστού.
Σημάδια Έλλειψης:
Κιτρίνισμα των φύλλων (χλώρωση).
Καθυστερημένη ανάπτυξη και μικρό μέγεθος κόκκων.
Σημάδια Περίσσειας:
Υπερβολική ανάπτυξη βλαστών (πλάγιασμα).
Αυξημένη ευαισθησία σε ασθένειες.
Φώσφορος (P)
Ρόλος στο Φυτό:
Ενισχύει την ανάπτυξη του ριζικού συστήματος.
Βελτιώνει την άνθηση και την ανάπτυξη των καρπών.
Ενισχύει την ενεργειακή μεταφορά (ATP) και το σχηματισμό DNA.
Απαιτήσεις:
Συνολική δόση: 8-10 κιλά P₂O₅/στρέμμα.
Κατανομή:
Όλη η ποσότητα εφαρμόζεται ως βασική λίπανση κατά τη σπορά.
Σημάδια Έλλειψης:
Μωβ-κόκκινη απόχρωση στα φύλλα λόγω συσσώρευσης ανθοκυανινών.
Καθυστερημένη ανάπτυξη ριζών και μικρότερη αντοχή στην ξηρασία.
Σημάδια Περίσσειας:
Αναστολή πρόσληψης ψευδαργύρου (Zn) από το έδαφος.
Κάλιο (K)
Ρόλος στο Φυτό:
Ρυθμίζει τη διαπνοή και την πρόσληψη νερού μέσω των στομάτων.
Ενισχύει την αντοχή σε ξηρασία και ασθένειες.
Βελτιώνει την ποιότητα των κόκκων και την αποθήκευση σακχάρων.
Απαιτήσεις:
Συνολική δόση: 10-12 κιλά K₂O/στρέμμα.
Κατανομή:
Όλη η ποσότητα ως βασική λίπανση ή σε δύο δόσεις (σπορά και αδέλφωμα).
Σημάδια Έλλειψης:
Καφέ-καμένες άκρες στα φύλλα (νέκρωση).
Μειωμένη ανάπτυξη και χαμηλή ποιότητα κόκκων.
Σημάδια Περίσσειας:
Παρεμπόδιση της πρόσληψης μαγνησίου (Mg) και ασβεστίου (Ca).
4.2.2 Secondary Elements
Ασβέστιο (Ca):
Σταθεροποιεί τα κυτταρικά τοιχώματα.
Βοηθά στη διαίρεση και ανάπτυξη των κυττάρων.
Δόση: 1-2 κιλά/στρέμμα.
Έλλειψη:
Παραμορφώσεις στους βλαστούς και τις ρίζες.
Κακή ανάπτυξη των αδελφιών.
Μαγνήσιο (Mg):
Βασικό συστατικό της χλωροφύλλης για τη φωτοσύνθεση.
Ενεργοποιεί ένζυμα που ρυθμίζουν το μεταβολισμό.
Δόση: 1-2 κιλά/στρέμμα.
Έλλειψη:
Χλώρωση μεταξύ των νευρώσεων στα παλαιότερα φύλλα.
Μειωμένη σύνθεση πρωτεϊνών.
Θείο (S):
Απαραίτητο για τη σύνθεση πρωτεϊνών και αμινοξέων.
Δόση: 2-3 κιλά/στρέμμα.
Έλλειψη:
Κιτρίνισμα των νεότερων φύλλων (διαφορετικό από το άζωτο).
Κακή ανάπτυξη κόκκων και χαμηλή περιεκτικότητα σε πρωτεΐνες.
4.2.3 Micronutrients
Calcium (Ca):
Stabilizes cell walls.
Aids in cell division and growth.
Dose: 1-2 kg per stremma.
Deficiency:
Deformations in shoots and roots.
Poor tiller development.
Magnesium (Mg):
Essential component of chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
Activates enzymes regulating metabolism.
Dose: 1-2 kg per stremma.
Deficiency:
Interveinal chlorosis on older leaves.
Reduced protein synthesis.
Sulfur (S):
Necessary for protein and amino acid synthesis.
Dose: 2-3 kg per stremma.
Deficiency:
Yellowing of younger leaves (different from nitrogen deficiency).
Poor grain development and low protein content.
4.3.1 Basic fertilisation (before sowing)
Goal:
Strengthening of the root system.
Preparation for optimal development of shoots and grains later on.
Application:
Done during soil preparation or simultaneously with sowing.
Incorporation into the soil through plowing or tilling to minimize losses.
Nutrient Doses:
Nitrogen (N): 5-8 kg per stremma – Used for the growth of leaves and shoots.
Phosphorus (P₂O₅): 8-10 kg per stremma – Aids root development and flowering.
Potassium (K₂O): 6-8 kg per stremma – Enhances resistance to drought and diseases.
Sulfur (S): 2-3 kg per stremma – Supports protein synthesis.
4.3.2 Surface Fertilisation (During Growth)
Goal:
Support tillering, stem elongation, and grain filling.
Prevent nutrient deficiencies during critical growth stages.
Application:
Divided into two main doses:
1st Dose – Tillering:
Nitrogen (N): 5-6 kg per stremma.
Promotes the production of more shoots and leaves.
2nd Dose – Stem Elongation:
Nitrogen (N): 4-6 kg per stremma.
Enhances vegetative growth and prepares the plant for flowering.
Special Applications (based on needs):
Zinc (Zn): 0.5-1 kg per stremma, especially in alkaline soils.
Magnesium (Mg): 2-3 kg per stremma in poor soils.
Iron (Fe): 0.5-1 kg per stremma via foliar feeding in cases of chlorosis.
4.3.3 Interleaf feeding (During Grain Filling)
Goal:
Rapid supply of micronutrients during deficiency periods.
Improve grain quality and increase protein content.
Application:
Foliar spray during grain filling.
Can be combined with plant protection products if needed.
Nutrients:
Nitrogen (N): 2-3 kg per stremma to increase protein content.
Zinc (Zn): 0.3-0.5 kg per stremma to aid sugar transport.
Manganese (Mn): 0.2-0.4 kg per stremma to enhance photosynthesis.
4.4.1 Stage 1: Germination & Root Development
Goals:
Rapid and uniform germination.
Development of a strong root system.
Nutritional Requirements:
Phosphorus (P): 8-10 kg per stremma for root development and cell division.
Potassium (K): 6-8 kg per stremma for disease resistance and enzyme activation.
Sulfur (S): 2-3 kg per stremma for protein synthesis.
Application Techniques:
Base fertilization before sowing, incorporated into the soil.
Application in bands for better root access.
4.4.2 Stage 2: Tillering
Goals:
Development of more tillers for increased yield.
Creation of abundant biomass.
Nutritional Requirements:
Nitrogen (N): 5-6 kg per stremma to promote tiller and leaf growth.
Potassium (K): 4-6 kg per stremma to enhance disease resistance.
Magnesium (Mg): 1-2 kg per stremma to boost photosynthesis.
Application Techniques:
Top dressing combined with irrigation or foliar spraying.
Repeated doses for gradual nutrient supply.
4.4.3 Stage 3: Stem Elongation
Goals:
Support rapid stem growth.
Strengthen plant tissues to prevent lodging.
Nutritional Requirements:
Nitrogen (N): 4-6 kg per stremma to increase height and grain yield.
Potassium (K): 5-6 kg per stremma to enhance cell turgor and resistance.
Zinc (Zn): 0.5-1 kg per stremma for enzyme synthesis and sugar transport.
Application Techniques:
Application via top dressing or foliar feeding.
Combine with irrigation where possible.
4.4.4 Stage 4: Flowering
Goals:
Smooth fertilization and fruit development.
Prevention of issues caused by micronutrient deficiencies.
Nutritional Requirements:
Nitrogen (N): 2-3 kg per stremma for protein transport to grains.
Manganese (Mn): 0.3-0.5 kg per stremma to support photosynthesis.
Iron (Fe): 0.5-1 kg per stremma to prevent chlorosis.
Application Techniques:
Foliar feeding sprays combined with fungicides.
Immediate correction of deficiencies with micronutrients.
4.4.5 Stage 5: Grain Filling & Maturity
Goals:
Transport of nutrients to the grains to improve quality.
Maintenance of protein and starch content.
Nutritional Requirements:
Nitrogen (N): 2-3 kg per stremma to enhance protein content.
Potassium (K): 4-5 kg per stremma for grain stabilization.
Application Techniques:
Foliar feeding for rapid absorption.
Nitrogen application as needed to improve protein levels.
4.5.1 The Importance of Soil Analysis
Personalized Fertilization:
Adjust fertilizer amounts to the soil’s needs, avoiding resource waste.
Economic Efficiency:
Reduce fertilization costs with precision applications.
Environmental Protection:
Limit nitrate leaching into groundwater.
Imbalance Correction:
Prevent deficiencies or toxicities from excessive nutrient accumulation.
4.5.2 Sampling and Soil Analysis
Sampling Time:
Autumn: Before sowing to assess the initial soil status.
Spring: During the vegetative period to monitor and correct deficiencies.
Sampling Technique:
Sampling Depth: 0-30 cm for surface nutrients; 30-60 cm (optional) to estimate nitrogen reserves.
Number of Samples: 1 sample per 2-5 acres in homogeneous soils.
Sample Mixing: Collect 10-15 subsamples and mix thoroughly.
Analysis and Interpretation:
Soil pH: Determines nutrient availability. Ideal range for barley: 6.0–7.5.
Organic Matter (OM): Optimal level around 2% to maintain fertility.
Nutrients (N, P, K): Assessment of available quantities.
Micronutrients (Zn, Fe, Mn): Check for potential deficiencies.
Electrical Conductivity (EC): Salinity assessment (threshold: <4 dS/m).
4.5.3 Calculation of Fertiliser Doses
Fertilization is adjusted based on soil analysis and expected yields:
Example Calculation for a Yield of 600 kg/acre:
| Nutrient Element | Requirement (kg/acre) | Soil Reserve (kg/acre) | Additional Need (kg/acre) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nitrogen (N) | 14 | 6 | 10 |
| Phosphorus (P₂O₅) | 8 | 4 | 6 |
| Potassium (K₂O) | 10 | 7 | 5 |
4.5.4 Adaptation to climatic and territorial conditions
Dry Areas:
Priority on potassium (K) for drought resistance.
Use fertilizers with urease/nitrification inhibitors for better nutrient utilization.
High Rainfall Areas:
Apply nitrogen in multiple split doses to avoid leaching.
Ammonium-based fertilizers (e.g., ammonium sulfate) are preferred.
Saline Soils:
Use potassium sulfate instead of potassium chloride to reduce salinity.
Add gypsum (CaSO₄) or other minerals to improve soil structure.
4.6.1 Basic Ground Application (Pre-plant Application)
Description:
Application of fertilizers before or during sowing.
Incorporation into the soil by plowing or harrowing.
Advantages:
Ensures immediate root access to nutrients.
Ideal for fertilizers that are absorbed slowly (e.g., phosphorus).
Nutrient Elements:
Phosphorus (P): Applied fully at this stage due to low soil mobility.
Potassium (K): Similarly applied before sowing.
Nitrogen (N): Only a portion (30-50%) of the total amount to support initial growth.
4.6.2 Top-Dressing (Top-Dressing)
Description:
Application of fertilizers on the soil surface after sowing and plant growth.
Advantages:
Used for nitrogen (N) supply during development.
Allows adjustments based on weather conditions and plant vigor.
Nutrient Elements:
Nitrogen (N): During tillering and stem elongation stages to increase biomass.
Sulfur (S): To enhance protein content and disease resistance.
4.6.3 Interleaf Nourishment (Foliar Application)
Description:
Application of nutrients by spraying directly onto the leaves.
Ideal method for rapid correction of deficiencies during critical growth stages.
Advantages:
Fast nutrient absorption through the leaves.
Avoids nutrient immobilization in the soil.
Can be combined with plant protection products.
Nutrient Elements:
Zinc (Zn): For carbohydrate metabolism and sugar formation.
Magnesium (Mg): To enhance photosynthesis.
Iron (Fe): For chlorosis correction.
Nitrogen (N): When there is a need to increase protein content.
Precautions:
Apply during early morning or late afternoon to avoid leaf burn.
Avoid spraying before heavy rainfall.
4.6.5 Fertilisers with urease/nitrification inhibitor)
Description:
Fertilizers that release nutrients gradually, ensuring long-term supply.
Advantages:
Reduction in the number of applications and labor costs.
Minimization of losses due to leaching or evaporation.
Enhanced nutrient uptake in heavy or sandy soils.
Usage:
Preferred as a base fertilization in dry areas and poor soils.
4.7.1 Basic Principles of Rational Lubrication
Personalized Approach with Soil Analysis:
Sampling and laboratory analysis for accurate estimation of available nutrients.
Adjustment of fertilizer doses according to the actual soil needs.
Adherence to the 4R Principle:
Right Source: Selection of fertilizers with the optimal nutrient forms (e.g., nitrate nitrogen for quick action).
Right Rate: Calculation of requirements based on soil characteristics and expected yields.
Right Time: Application at the appropriate growth stages (e.g., tillering, stem elongation).
Right Place: Targeted placement of fertilizers near roots or application via fertigation.
Use of Fertilizers with Inhibitors:
Reduction of nutrient losses due to leaching or volatilization.
Provision of stable nutrient supply throughout the crop development.
4.7.2 Indicative Recommendations for Barley
Sowing and Root Development (Base Fertilization):
Nitrogen (N): 5-8 kg/acre for initial growth.
Phosphorus (P): 8-10 kg/acre for root establishment.
Potassium (K): 6-8 kg/acre to enhance stress resistance.
Application Method: Broadcasting and incorporation through plowing or harrowing.
Tillering and Stem Elongation (Top Dressing):
Nitrogen (N): 5-6 kg/acre to increase biomass.
Potassium (K): 4-6 kg/acre for stem development and resilience.
Application Method: Dry surface application or fertigation.
Flowering and Grain Filling (Foliar Feeding):
Zinc (Zn): 0.5-1 kg/acre for grain development.
Magnesium (Mg): 1-2 kg/acre for photosynthesis.
Iron (Fe): 0.5-1 kg/acre to prevent chlorosis.
Application Method: Foliar sprays at critical growth stages.
4.8.3 Proposals for Specific Production Targets
Malting (Brewing):
Limit nitrogen application during the later growth stages to keep protein content low, suitable for malt production.
Animal Feed:
Enhance with nitrogen and potassium to increase protein content and improve nutritional value.
Dryland Crops:
Focus on phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) for drought resistance.
Prefer fertilizers with urease/nitrification inhibitors for prolonged nutrient release.
5. Irrigation and Water Management
5.1 Water needs
Barley requires an average of 300-500 mm of water throughout the growing season, with the greatest needs occurring during the flowering and grain filling stages.
5.1.1 Distribution of Water Needs by Development Stage
| Growth Stage | Duration (days) | Percentage of Total Water Needs |
|---|---|---|
| Germination and Tillering | 0-30 | 20-25% |
| Stem Elongation | 30-60 | 25-30% |
| Flowering and Grain Filling | 60-90 | 35-40% |
| Maturity | 90-120 | 10-15% |
Note: Water requirements vary depending on soil type, climatic conditions, and barley variety.
5.1.2 Important Stages for Water Supply
Tillering:
Adequate moisture is essential for the development of lateral shoots and increasing the number of spikes.
Stem Elongation and Flowering:
Water is crucial for leaf growth, flowering, and fruit set.
Grain Filling:
Water deficiency during this stage can result in small, shriveled grains.
6. Plant protection
6.1 Weed control
Weeds compete with barley for water, nutrients and light, reducing yield and degrading grain quality.
6.1.1 Weed categories
Broadleaf Weeds:
Examples: Wild Oats (Avena fatua), Mallow (Malva spp.), Daisy (Chrysanthemum spp.).
Damage: Compete for water and nutrients, reducing crop yield.
Grass Weeds:
Examples: Wild Oats (Avena sterilis), Ryegrass (Lolium rigidum).
Damage: Difficult to control due to morphological similarity with barley.
6.2 Insect control
Insects can cause direct damage to plants or act as disease vectors.
6.2.1 Main enemies of barley
Aphids:
Damage: Suck plant sap and transmit viruses such as Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus (BYDV).
Management: Preventive insecticide sprays (e.g., pyrethroids), use of resistant varieties.
Thrips:
Damage: Cause drying of leaf blades, reducing yield.
Management: Population monitoring with traps, insecticide sprays during vegetative growth.
Wireworms:
Damage: Attack seeds and roots during early growth stages.
Management: Incorporate soil amendments before sowing, use pre-emergence systemic insecticide sprays.
6.3 Dealing with Diseases
Οι ασθένειες στο κριθάρι οφείλονται σε μύκητες, βακτήρια και ιούς και προκαλούν σημαντικές απώλειες παραγωγής.
6.3.1 Fungal diseases
- Ωίδιο (Blumeria graminis):
- Συμπτώματα: Λευκές κηλίδες σε φύλλα και βλαστούς.
- Αντιμετώπιση:
- Χρήση ανθεκτικών ποικιλιών.
- Ψεκασμοί με μυκητοκτόνα (π.χ. τριαζόλες).
- Σκωρίαση (Puccinia hordei):
- Συμπτώματα: Πορτοκαλί φλύκταινες σε φύλλα και βλαστούς.
- Αντιμετώπιση:
- Προληπτικοί ψεκασμοί με μυκητοκτόνα (π.χ. στρομπιλουρίνες).
- Καλός αερισμός καλλιέργειας, με κατάλληλη πυκνότητα σποράς.
- Φουζάριο (Fusarium spp.):
- Συμπτώματα: Ροζ αποχρωματισμοί στις βάσεις και ξήρανση των κόκκων.
- Αντιμετώπιση:
- Χρήση επενδεδυμένων σπόρων.
- Περιορισμός της υγρασίας με στρατηγικές άρδευσης.
6.3.2 Viruses
Ιός Κίτρινου Νάνου (BYDV):
- Μεταδίδεται από αφίδες.
- Αντιμετώπιση:
- Καταπολέμηση αφίδων με εντομοκτόνα.
- Χρήση ανθεκτικών ποικιλιών.
7. Harvesting and Storage
7.1.1 Maturity criteria for harvesting
Grain Moisture:
Ideal moisture: 12-14% for safe storage.
Moisture >14% increases risk of fungal infections and toxin development.
Plant Color:
Yellowing and drying of leaves and stems.
Drying of the spike and easy detachment of grains.
Mechanical Grain Stability:
Grains should have a hard texture and resist crushing easily.
7.1.2 Harvest Delay - Risks:
Increased Losses:
Due to grain shattering and falling from the spikes.
Quality Deterioration:
Caused by high moisture or infestations from insects and fungi.
Harvesting Difficulties:
Overly dry grains prone to breakage during processing.
7.3.1 Grain cleaning
Removal of Foreign Materials:
Straw, soil, and debris are separated through sieving and aeration.
Benefits:
Enhances the quality and marketability of the grains.
7.3.2 Grain drying
Moisture Reduction:
Lower moisture content to 12-14% for safe storage.
Drying Systems:
Use artificial drying systems with hot air at 40-50°C.
Precautions:
Avoid overheating above 60°C to prevent degradation of malting quality.
7.4 Barley storage
Proper storage protects the grains from fungal infections, insects, pathogens and moisture damage.
7.4.1 Types of warehouses
Silo Storage:
Suitable for large quantities.
Provides controlled temperature and humidity environment.
Bulk Storage (Flat Storage):
Suitable for smaller quantities.
Requires ventilation to prevent moisture condensation.
Bags:
Use durable, breathable bags for small quantities.
Place on pallets to avoid contact with the ground.
7.4.2 Temperature and humidity control
Storage Temperature:
Keep below 25°C to limit insect development.
Storage Moisture:
<12%: Ideal for long-term storage.
13-14%: Suitable for short-term storage (up to 3 months).
>15%: Risk of fungal growth and toxin production (e.g., aflatoxins).
7.4.3 Enemy Control
Insects:
Sitophilus granarius (Granary weevil): Bores into grains.
Rhyzopertha dominica: Causes grain powdering.
Control: Use insecticides or aluminum phosphide fumigation.
Fungi and Mycotoxins:
Aspergillus spp., Fusarium spp.: Produce toxins such as aflatoxins.
Prevention: Use fungicides and control moisture levels.
Rodents:
Protection measures include traps and sealed storage systems.
